Define and explain Orientalism Essay

Europeans used the marches Orient to describe the plentys and places of Asia and the Middle East. While widely accepted prior to the late twentieth century, this name has aroused criticism among historians. The purpose of this essay is also define and explain Orientalism, and how the term Orientalist applies to Christian missionaries in the Far East. Two main examples of these missionaries ar Matteo Ricci and Francis Xavier who served in mainland china and lacquer respectively. Both of these missionaries fall under the definition of Orientalists as defined by Edward Said.Edward Said defines Orientalism in multiple qualitys the first of which is the academic1. donnish Orientalism is the study of the Orient for the purpose of understanding and learning. Modern historians batch the term Orient to be too vague for an ara as large as Asia, still it is still widely used passim the world. Academic Orientalism attempts to study and understand the Orient from afar. Professors o f Chinese language who consecrate never spoken with a Chinese person are a common example of this detached intellectualism. Often in eighteenth Century Europe the Orientalist would study and judge the Orient based on second hand intimacy and conjecture. This view of understanding the Orient advance than the Oriental without living it leads into the second part of Orientalism2.The second part of Orientalism as defined by Said is the justification of oppressiveness. Europeans believed that due to their better understanding of the history of a culture, and their superior culture they needed to dominate different cultures in order to improve them. Arthur James Balfour, a member of the British parliament once said in reference to Egypt We are in Egypt not merely for the sake of the Egyptians, though we are there for their sake we are there also for the sake of Europe at large3. Balfour meant by this that British occupation of Egypt was necessary for the protection of the Egyptians and for the benefit of all Europe. Balfour and different Orientalist believed that they understood Egypt better than the Egyptians themselves, and for this reason governed Egypt for the benefit of Egypt. This form of justification was used throughout the Orient. China, India, Philippines and others were all suppress on the justification of the white mans burden. The idea of the burden of the white race to civilize inferior races was a key part of Orientalism.4One of the main points of Orientalism is the division of humanity into us and them. The Occidental and the Oriental, East and West, these are divisions created by Europeans in order to dominate the other. By separating the peoples an Orientalist croupe justify the subjugation and agonistic diversity of other races. Saids overall point is that Orientalism was created by Europeans in order to justify the subjugation of the Orientals. Cultural and intellectual superiority and the separation of us and them led to three hundred years of European imperialism in the so called Orient.5In order to understand how Orientalism affected Missionaries in China and Japan, one(a) moldiness(prenominal) first understand the Orientalists views of foreign religions. Most Orientalists were Christians and therefore believed all none Christians were destined for hell. This, fishily enough, even applied to pre-Christians such as Aristotle and Abraham. In Dantes Inferno both these men are in the first layer of Hell, even though Christianity did not exist during their lifetimes. So from this intolerant view one can see the basic attitude towards non-Christians. Muslims, Hindu and Buddhists were all considered pagan that needed the intelligence information of Jesus to save them from eternal damnation. The Churchs commission to preach the gospel of Christ to some(prenominal) creature also lays upon her the task of inviting all to accept Christ as Lord and Saviour and to espouse his Church through baptism.6 With this beli ef in mind Christian Missionaries went to the Orient to save the heathens and convert them to the one true faith, whether they wanted too or not.7One of the earliest Christian Missionaries forefather Matteo Ricci of the Society of Jesus, better kn admit as the Jesuits, arrived in China in 1582 after a four month trip from Goa. He was a Roman Catholic priest who was trained the capital of Italy in numerous subjects. The Jesuits were the most well educated order within the Catholic Church for this reason they were particularly well suitable for missionary work in Asia. The Jesuit tactic was too convert the social elites and then have their support in the conversion of the masses.This worked particularly well in Asia due to the strict social structures and relatively good training of the elites. Also the far-flung belief in Confucianism fit well with Christianity. Ricci said in his work The True Idea of God, the Confucian Classics contained allusions, albeit in an inchoate manner, to such Christian notions as God and a future life.8 Well educated bureaucrats in China respected Riccis education and intelligence, and were arouse in the Western ideas he possessed9. Techniques such as Riccis Memory Palace interested the Chinese and often spawned further interest into the religion Ricci brought with him.10Riccis view of the Chinese is full of contradictions. numerous aspects of Chinese culture and government Ricci respected, such as their dress and level of education the hygiene of the people and the relative order imposed by the Chinese bureaucracy11. At the same time that Ricci praised aspects of Chinese civilization, he abhorred a great deal of Chinese practices. Among these are the corruption rampant throughout China, the worship of heathen religions and their disrespect for human life. Ricci once remarked This country is full of slaves. 12 Most importantly Ricci despised the widespread homosexuality within China13.There are two main reasons for describing R icci as an Orientalist. The first is his reason for macrocosm in China. Ricci sought to convert all of China to Catholicism. He cared little for the established religions in China and sought to impose his Christian faith upon the peoples of China. Ricci once remarked Buddhism violated the very first of the Ten Commandments, and it had not raised moral standards in China despite its two thousand years during which it had been preached.14 Viewing his own faith as superior to any other and existence so disdainful of all others, Ricci can be designate an Orientalist.The second reason for labeling Ricci an Orientalist is his general disdain for all things Chinese. While he may admire certain attributes he generally views everything Western superior for example his disgust with open harlotry in the streets of major Chinese cities. Ricci completely glosses over the fact that prostitution was legal within Rome itself. In fact prostitution within Rome was widespread.Montaigne on visitin g Rome remarked, Taking take aim rides or strolling to view the prostitutes was a major Roman pastime.15 In his criticism of homosexuality, Ricci also ignores the previous acceptation of homosexuality in Europe. Montaigne remarked during his visit too Rome, several marriages between Portuguese males had been celebrated in the church service of St. John a few years before, and that the couples had went to bed and lived together for some time before being arrested and burned at the stake.16 This method of criticizing China while ignoring the fact that the same problems existed within Europe labels Ricci as an Orientalist.Ricci had additional goals beyond simply the conversion of the Chinese. Along with the conversion to Christianity Ricci hope to rebuild China along European lines. Ricci spent a great deal of time extolling the virtues of European civilization, and purity of the Catholic faith17. Ricci hoped to rid China of corruption, create a perfect Christian society, and clean se China of heathen practices such as abstaining from meat year round and homosexuality18. These goals of changing Chinese society certainly label Ricci to be an Orientalist.Father Francis Xavier of the Society of Jesus arrived in Japan in 1549 aboard a Chinese junk. Xavier had many sign difficulties in Japan the first of which being his inability to speak Japanese, and later to understand it. His interpreter caused Xavier many troubles later on due to his using Buddhist names for Christian figures, and forever linking Buddhism to Christianity in the minds of the Japanese19. The other difficulty for Xavier was his misunderstanding of Japanese society. When Xavier first arrived he hoped to convert the king of Japan, by this he meant the Shogun20. But when Xavier met the Shogun he found him to be a man of little importance who could barely fight his own territory, let alone the whole country. Japan was in the period of sengoku, or country at war, and was divided among many feudal lo rds all vying for power. This state of civil war later benefited the Christian missionaries greatly, but initially confused Xavier21.Xavier spent the majority of his time in Japan attempting to convert Japanese daimyo and kokujin to Christianity. He succeeded in a few cases largely due to his link with Portuguese trade ships. Daimyo within Japan were looking for a way to gain advantage over their enemies, and trade with the Portuguese greatly enriched many lords. The Japanese believed that converting to Christianity would give them more favorable trade with the Portuguese, and for this reason many converted22.Xavier can be labeled an Orientalist for two main reasons. The first is his overall goal of converting the heathen Japanese to Christianity. His total disdain for Buddhism is unmingled when he refers to the religion of Dianichi, an invention of the devil, as also were all the other sects of Japan.23 The second reason for labeling Xavier an Orientalist is for his views on homos exuality. Riccis beliefs on homosexuality among Asians stem from Xavier. When Xavier was the head of the Far East mission he state that homosexuality was an evil to be combated in Asia24. For these reasons Xavier is clearly an Orientalist the same as Ricci.For all of their efforts to convert the peoples of China and Japan, neither Ricci nor Xavier succeeded in any significant way. The problems in China were numerous deep seated beliefs in Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism kept many from converting, also the lack of interest by the elite made any character of wide scale conversion impossible. In addition the basic fear of outsiders made the Chinese green-eyed and angry towards the Christian missionaries25. In Japan the eventual consolidation of Japan under the Tokugawa shogunate forced all Christians too abandon their faith. The Tokugawa did not want any opposition to their regime and barred any foreigners from entering Japan. Also deep seated religious beliefs and xenophobia as in China caused few too embrace Christianity. Neither Ricci nor Xavier succeeded in their goal of converting the Far East the task they committed their lives too. One must wonder if they had taken a more open, non Orientalist approach, would they have been more successful?1 Said, Edward W. Orientalism. (New York First vintage Books Edition, October 1979.), 2.2 Ibid, 3.3 Ibid, 33.4 Ibid, 33-36.5 Ibid, 83.6 Manikam, Rajah B. Christianity and the Asian Revolution. (New York Friendship Press, 1954) 185.7 Spence, 73-75.8 Ching, Julia. Confucianism and Christianity. (Tokyo Kodansha International, 1977) 10.9 Hellyer, Robert. Lecture. The Jesuits in Asia. Allegheny College. Meadville, Pa. 11 February 2002.10 Spence, Jonathan D. The Memory Palace of Matteo Ricci. (New York Penguin Books, 1985.) 2-511 Ibid, 210.12 Ibid, 219.13 Ibid, 224.14 Ibid, 252.15 Ibid, 208.16 Ibid, 226.17 Ibid, 2-5.18 Ibid, 217.19 Elisonas, Christianity and the Daimyo, (Cambridge History of Japan, volume 4, 301-372.) 3 07-310.20 Ibid, 311.21 Ibid, 312.22 Ibid, 323.23 Ibid, 309.24 Spence, 224.