Genetically Modifying Crops Essay

Summary: What are the advantages and disadvantages of genetically modifying food crops? Can developing countries or countries struggling with famine profit from these techniques?Does it affect the surrounding environment? These are all questions that have kept scientist biologist and ethicists busy. Religious groups would also like to have there say in it. Can genetic engineering help society, or will it be a burden for our future generations, because it has disastrous effects on our environment. Approximately 10,000 years ago the first crops were consciously planted. In the Middle East, wheat and barley were planted, the early farmers in Peru cultivated potatoes and beans and in the Indus valley the ancient civilization there started sowing their fields with rice. How they figured this out we don’t know it was probably a long process of trial and error and a fair bit of luck. This early agriculture consisted out of four stages: sowing the seeds, caring for the plants, harvesting, selecting and keeping back some of the seeds for the next generation. Although these people that had settled down to farm had improved their life styles considerably, they still wanted a higher crop yield and a bigger variety of crops. This lead to certain techniques. Some that they understood like crop rotation, but others that have only been recently been explained by modern DNA research. These early farmers unconsciously crossed for example certain types of walnuts together, so that they w ere not poisonous anymore. Wild walnuts contain cyanide and the concentration in wild walnuts is enough to kill a human. These early farmers also tried to get bigger seeds and fruits of their crops and make them more resistant to diseases. Of course they booked some progress, but not a lot. Nowadays scientists are still trying to genetically modify crops using new techniques which involves cutting and pasting the DNA with enzymes. So is it only good that, because of the work of these scientists we will have stronger and healthier crops or are there also disadvantages to genetically modifying crops?One of the obvious arguments against genetically modifying crops comes from religious groups. They think that experimenting with DNA and genes is messing with the natural order. They believe that â€Å"God† created everything and meant it to be created that  way. These religious groups can not prove that â€Å"God† meant it to be like this, so it is not valid evidence. Never the less they still make a point. If you genetically modify a crop in Area A these crops will of course also pollinate. When they pollinate there seeds will be carried by animals and the wind to the areas lying around them, Areas B, C, D and E. So if the grass in Area A was genetically modified than the seeds may carry and affect the grass in Areas B, C, and D and E which have normal natural grown grass. This of course could affect the ecological system that was in place in Areas B, C and D and E. There are certain genetically modified crops that yield infertile seeds, but these have not yet been approved and been given free. An advantage of genetically modifying crops is obviously that farmers, who are in most countries struggling financially, can get a higher crop yield. Not only by making crops resistant for certain diseases or pests, but also by making them resistant to the herbicides which are used to kill the weeds. The first reason stated has already been used. The European corn borer used to destroy about 7% of the annual yield of corn on the world. Since they added the gene that produces the Bt protein, which causes the corn borers to die of hunger, the annual yield in the USA has risen 5-10% in all areas. More interesting though is if scientists could make the crops resistant to herbicides. This would especially be financially attractive for farmers, since they don’t have to hire in people to do the weeding and they don’t have to pay all kinds of environmental taxes. The farmers sometimes have to pay these taxes, especially in Western countries, because of the biodegradability of t hese herbicides. Biodegradability, which I mentioned in the last paragraph, is one of the most important arguments of the group for using the special herbicides and modifying crops. They believe that the herbicides that are used now affect the ecosystem in a disastrous way. The term biodegradability means how good the environment is able to digest the herbicides. Some herbicides that are used now also affect the animals in the area. This is bad for the ecosystem, because the natural balance will be affected. So if through genetic engineering they can modify the crops so that they are resistant to these herbicides this might contribute to raising the biodegradability in the  ecosystem. This is because the products they use to make these specific herbicides are general better for the environment. Also farmers can use less herbicide if the crops are resistant to them. They can spray a rough coat of their fields without having to worry that it will also hit their crops. For the consumers it would also be a good move, because of the higher crop yield the food prices would go down. The water supplies would also benefit, because there would be less toxic groundwater, which is caused by the herbicides seeping into the soil, pumped into them. Biologists are very worried about the loss of bio diversity, because of the genetic engineering of foods. Also medicine developers are worried that certain types of crops will be lost, because scientists are changing the genes of these crops. Medicine developers would like to keep and preserve as many different types of crops, because in the future they might be able to make medicine out of them. They would like to do this through using the genes of plants that are resistant to a disease and putting it in a human virus cell. By injecting these cells into humans these humans would become immune to it. So in principle the medicine developers are not against genetically modifying products but they would not like to lose any plants that might be of value for them in the future. Biologists are less interested in the healing qualities of these plants, but purely in the bio diversity. They would like to retain as much different species and types of plants to keep the natural order in balance. What, however, is more important is that if crops are genetically modified the original crops can not cross pollinate with other species of the same plant. This might lead to just one type of from example corn crop. This in the future could become a big problem, because if the climate changes the crop will not be able to cross pollinate with another crop and thus not adapt to the changing climate. This is a big issue, because with the global warming getting worse each year a climate change in the future could be disastrous. Biologist and ecologists have though started creating vaults in which all different types of plants are being preserved to maintain the bio diversity. An advantage of genetically modifying crops is that people in developing countries can get a higher crop yield and maybe even have two harvests per  year. With this advantage though comes a big advantage. The companies that develop the techniques and sell them are all Western companies and there are only a few. So if African countries want to get these genetically crops they have to pay these companies. This will give these companies indirect access to the food supplies of Africa and other developing countries. If the companies also consider the poor companies in the way they handle genetically modifying these crops and selling them would contribute to making the world a better place. It is, however, more likely that they might unconsciously handle in favour of their own companies and profit. Another important issue is if crops that have been genetically modified should be labelled or not. Most people prefer to know what has been done to the food they’re eating. It is the same with organic eggs. People would like to know if the chickens that laid the eggs are having or had a good life. Most people are not against the fact that the crop is modified, they would just like to know it. There are many advantages, but also many disadvantages with genetically modified crops. There are ethical ones which come from religious groups. They believe you should not mess with â€Å"God’s† creations. A disadvantage is that genetically modified crops can cross pollinate with other normal crops in the areas around them. An advantage is that farmers and especially farmers in poor countries can get a higher crop yield and maybe have more than one harvest a year. A disadvantage though is that the companies that modify the crops could handle unfairly and would have control over their food supply. There might also be a loss of bio diversity. I think that genetically modifying crops is a good idea. It does have to be controlled properly though. There should only be certain areas where it should be allowed and foods that are made with it should be labelled. I also believe that the companies that produce these modifications should share the technology with other less rich companies to prevent a monopoly. Plants could also hold many products that could produce medicines in the future. So overall I think that crops should and can be genetically modified, but there should be strict regulations and the bio diversity should be preserved. Sources: Department of Agriculture, South AfricaISAAAhttp://www.geocities.com/gm_crops/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_crops#Genetic_modification_of_plantshttp://www.newscientist.com/channel/life/gm-foodGuns, Germs and Steel by Jared DiamondANW course bookhttp://www.fao.org/ag/magazine/0111sp.htmhttp://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/elsi/gmfood.shtml

How My Brother Leon Brought a Wie

A simple, faithful and responsible are some adjectives that described Ms. Lara May S. Aguilar. A kind of woman who’s prioritized her Family and Career. She is the only girl out of four siblings of Mr. Rogelio Aguilar and Mrs. Warlie Galvez Aguilar, that was born on May 06, 1986 at Pasig, Metro Manila. She is presently residing at Pag-asa District, Talavera Nueva Ecija where she spent all her childhood days until school days. She finished her elementary course at Talavera Central School year 1999, then her high school years at Talavera National High School year 2003. fter her graduation in high school, she think that she want to be a writer that is why in her college life, she chose a course that is related to what she want, and she decided to enroll Bachelor of Secondary Education Major in English at Nueva Ecija University Of Science and Technology. After her learning years, with the blessings of our almighty God, she passed the licensure examination for teachers on October 24, 2007 with a rating76. 20 % and this would be the greatest achievement she had. After passing the licensure examination for teachers, she started as a lecturer with hourly basis in NEUST main campus on June 2007to October 2011, then as a classroom teacher in Kobayashi Learning Center at Homestead II, Talavera Nueva Ecija on October 2012 to March 2013. Presently, she is an English course instructress at the very first College school in Talavera, the Nueva Ecija University Of Science And Technology- Municipal Government Of Talavera (NEUST-MGT).

Sports Development Continuum

P1 describe three examples of the sports development continuum, from three different sports M1 compare and contrast three examples of the sports development continuum, from three different sports, identifying strengths and areas for improvement Sports Development Continuum Foundation: means the early development of sporting competence and physical skills (e. g. throwing, catching, and hand-eye co-ordination) upon which all later forms of sports development are based.Without a sound foundation, young people are unlikely to become long-term sports participants. Participation: refers to sport undertaken primarily for fun, enjoyment and often, at basic levels of competence. However, many very competent sports people take part in sport purely for reasons of fun and health & fitness. Performance: signifies a move from basic competence into a more structured form of competitive sport at club or county level, or indeed at an individual level for personal reasons.Excellence: is about reaching the top and applies to performers at the highest national and international levels The Golf Foundation reports that its adapted and competitive golf offering for schools is proving a big hit with teachers and pupils. The Foundation’s ‘HSBC Golf Roots’ programme in schools is gathering significant momentum in 2013, as 39 out of 46 County Local Organising Committees have selected an HSBC Golf Roots competition for the current academic year as part of England’s School Games curriculum.This high proportion is second only to athletics, and ahead of traditional school sports such as football, cricket and netball. Participation: refers to sport undertaken primarily for fun, enjoyment and often, at basic levels of competence. However, many very competent sports people take part in sport purely for reasons of fun and health & fitness. An example for participation would be SNAG golf. Performance: signifies a move from basic competence into a more structured form of competitive sport at club or county level, or indeed at an individual level for personal reasons.Elite: is about reaching the top and applies to performers at the highest national and international levels. Football Development Centre’s These centres can be found in 70 colleges across the country for players who are above average to compete with players of a similar ability. Here they work in an environment with people who can develop their progression to achieve their highest level of performance. Once players have reached a certain level according to the coaches they can be recommended to a school of excellence or academy. Players can attend these centres by invitation only.They would have normally taken part in a Local Football Development Scheme activity in the past. Liverpool Football Club have a talent development scheme starting from their under 10’s going up to under 19’s. †¢UNDER 10-â€Å"age of fun†. †¢UNDER 12-â€Å"age of techniqueà ¢â‚¬ . †¢UNDER 14-â€Å"age of understanding†. †¢UNDER 16-â€Å"age of competitive match play†. †¢UNDER 19-â€Å"age of professional preparation†. This is similar to the Long-term athlete development models devised by Istvan Balyi in 1990 following his work with the Canadian Alpine Ski team in the 1980’s.This was designed to help prepare players to reach the highest levels. It takes about 10 years of training to develop an elite athlete however they don’t need to train for 10 years in one sport. The LTAD state that playing more than one sport over the 10 years is part of the programme. This programme has 6 phases to it. It also helps prepare people for retirement to the sport. These 6 phases are then split into 3 areas: †¢Objective: what the athlete should be able to do at the end of the phase †¢Content: the activities contained within the phase Frequency: how often the athlete should train during the phase. Phase one- FUN damentals Objective: to learn fundamental movement skills. Content: overall development, focusing on ABCS (agility, balance, coordination, speed) to underpin the generic skills used in many sports (running, jumping and throwing). Frequency: perform physical activity five to six times per week. Phase two- Learning to Train Objective: to learn fundamental sports skills Content: Concentration on the range of FUNdamental sports skills, such as throwing, catching, jumping and running †¢Introduction to readiness – being mentally and physically prepared †¢Basic FUNdamentals tactics, e. g. if fielding, net/wall, invasion games can be introduced. (In net/wall games, players achieve this by sending a ball towards a court or target area which their opponent is defending. The aim is to get the ball to land in the target area and make it difficult for the opponent to return it) †¢Cognitive and emotional development are central †¢Skills are practised in challenging form atsFrequency: if there is a favoured sport it is suggested 50% of the time is allocated to other sport/activities that develop a range of skills. Phase three – Training to Train Objective: to build fitness and specific sport skills †¢Fitness training †¢Detailed mental preparation †¢A focus on sport-specific skill development, including perceptual skills (reading the game/tactical understanding †¢Decision making †¢Detailed and extensive evaluation Frequency: for the aspiring performer, sport-specific practice will now be 6-9 times a week Phase 4 – Training to CompeteObjective: to refine skills for a specific event or position Content: †¢Event and position-specific training †¢Physical conditioning †¢Technical and tactical preparation †¢Advanced mental practice †¢All of the above come together and are developed under competition conditions Frequency: training can be up to 12 times a week Phase 5 – Training to Win Ob jective: to maximise performance in competition Content: †¢Development and refinement of all the skills learnt already but with more use in competition modelling.More attention paid to rest periods and the prevention of injury due to heavier load. Frequency: training can be up to 15 times a week (some sports may stop at this phase as this is the highest competitive level) Phase 6 – Retainment For athletes/players retiring from competitive sport, many sports are developing Master’s programmes. An additional phase, â€Å"retainment†, keeps players/athletes involved in physical activity. Experience gained as a competitor can be invaluable, should they move into administration, coaching or officiating.

Organization experiencing challenges with its compensation and benefit Research Paper

Organization experiencing challenges with its compensation and benefit system - Research Paper Example This research paper describes the compensation practices undertaken in organizations have far reaching effects on the competitive advantage of the firm. In order to develop competitive advantage of a firm in the global market, the compensation plans developed by the firm must align with the strategic plans and actions of the same. Apart from the attainment of competitive advantage compensation practices also have influence over recruitments, turnover, productivity of labour, etc. in firms. Thus it is crucial that firms make thorough analysis of how people perceive about the firm’s compensation and how these perceptions consequently affect their behavior. A substantial amount of job satisfaction of employees depends on the amount of compensation that he receives as well as the benefits he derives from the organizations. The financial compensations complemented with adequate benefits such as insurances, sick leaves, paid vacations, discounts, pension plans etc. impacts on the sa tisfaction level of employees and subsequently their behavior and commitment towards the same. The American Airlines (AA) confronted with serious compensation and benefit issues due to the restricting of their compensation plans for employees. Due to the great losses incurred by American Airlines, one of the world’s largest airlines, the management had to undertake massive cost cutting and restructuring campaign with the purpose of restoring profitability. This resulted in massive job cuts of employees. The policy only invited random resistance from employees which further aggravated the amount of losses incurred by the company. ... The problem would be supported by presentation of critical literature which would include various arguments presented by researcher, practitioners and author and also empirical evidence on the subject. Thesis statement Following is the thesis statement developed for the study; Due to the critical role played by compensation and benefit plans on employees’ job satisfaction, commitment and productivity, companies need to strive to exploit full potential of their human resources through adequate compensation and benefit structures. Review of the Literature As organizations continue to be confronted with increased competitive pressures, they seek to achieve more using fewer resources. Along with the rise in emphasis on such aspects as sales volume, innovation, profits, quality etc, many cases have revealed tight control over employments with substantial employment cuts. The idea to manage human resources effectively using fewer employees has evolved over the years. Subsequently th e emphasis has shifted towards the system of employee compensation with the view to manage human resources better (Gerhart, Minkoff & Olsen, 1994, p.1). Employee compensation and benefits play a key role as it lies at the heart of employment relationships having critical importance for both employers and employees. The financial compensation paid by employers in the form of salaries and wages comprises of the main income of the employees. On the other hand benefits account for the health and other security of employees. A large proportion of employee’s job satisfaction and performance depends on the combination of both the compensation and benefits he receives. From the perspective of the employer, the compensation decisions undertaken influences the costs associated with doing the

Internation Assignment Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Internation Assignment - Research Paper Example Therefore, international human resource has a major role in balance achievement for coordinating and controlling of foreign subsidiaries and adopt local environment while the domestic human resource is only concerned with the local level. International human resource has a responsibility of managing the complexities of employing people and operating from different cultures and countries as compared to domestic human resource. Thus, it is important to understand the differences that exist in managing employees in a foreign and domestic environment. In terms of the range of activities, international human resource addresses a range of activities as compared to domestic human resource (Rowley & Warner, 2007). Controlling cross-border operations of multinational enterprise MNE around its procedures, practices and processes is important. The main goal of human resource standardization is to enhance transparency, consistency as well as aligning the enterprise workforce around common similar objectives and principles. This is important in the attainment of local responsiveness with respect to the traditions, legislation and cultural values (McMahan, Bell, & Virick, 1998). The organization strategy and structure are a major factor that drives the standardization of human resource practice in an organization. Companies operate in a context of worldwide conditions of inter-organizational alliances and networks. The structure and strategy influence human resource practice as well as goals of MNEs. Thus, it is essential  for an enterprise  to be supported by a corresponding organizational structure. The cultural environment drives standardization of human resource practices. Appropriate human resource management practices are important in helping the supporting cohesion between different MNE units; thus, human resource practices ought to match with the local values and norms. Multinational enterprises that

Describe your participation in a community outreach activity Research Paper

Describe your participation in a community outreach activity - Research Paper Example My role in the outreach program was to find out poor people and to help them get the basic necessities of life. It was a great experience for me to participate in an outreach activity. According to my point of view, community and the families hold the major part of the responsibility to help the poor and deprived people and to provide them with healthcare, judicial, and financial support. This is the reason why I participated in that outreach activity. It was basically a NGO with whom I worked. The aim of our NGO was not only to provide the people with instant financial and medical support but also to arrange small business setups for the deserving and skilled people. We were organized in the form of groups, which searched for the poor and deprived people all over the society. The chief coordinator of the NGO, Mr. Mark James, assigned me the roles to help the poor class financially, to provide them with medical and judicial support, and to meet educational and psychological needs of the poor people living in the society. It was great experience for me as it not only helped the poor class belonging to my society but also made me aware of the emotional and psychological needs of the poor people. Today, I feel a complete change in my personality. I love to help the deprived and unprivileged people. I want to make them enjoy life as all other people do. It is due to my participation in that outreach activity that, today, I think about others before thinking about myself in anything I do or wish to do. Apart from all positive aspects and beneficial outcomes of the outreach program, I think that the program needs some improvements in the planning phase. I would recommend a couple of changes in the program. First, the services should not be limited to the people living in our society; rather they should be expanded to poor relatives of our people living in other parts of the world. In this way, more people

Human Resource Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Human Resource - Essay Example Alternatively, I would set aside the elections based on the Taft- Hartley provisions and the circumstances of the case. The law stipulates employees’ freedom and right to determine their representative union and prohibits any form of threat of reprisal from the employer. The supervisor, being a recognized representative of the employer, however expressed interest in the union’s meeting by making multiple appearances around the meeting. Such a repetitive act was therefore not coincidental and indicated a motive to influence employees’ representation. The supervisor’s appearances around the union’s meeting could also have implications such as identifying members of the unions, based on their past unionism initiatives, and influencing elections results to favor some unions. The employer is also vicariously liable for the supervisor’s actions. These therefore mean that the employer’s behavior, through its supervisor, identifies significant threat of reprisal against the union and therefore contravenes employees’ freedom and right to determine their union of representation (Carter and Rausch,

Technology management Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Technology management - Assignment Example (Use that answer to explain you decision as CEO) Spreading breweries all over China is a better than building one huge brewery because of a breakdown of one of the breweries others will serve the market with the product. Anheuser-Busch InBev has the largest brewery in the world and it has managed to get its products worldwide through establishment of several branches of breweries in many nations. Setting up several branches has enabled the company to cut down the cost of exporting the products from a single source (Esterl, 2013). Partnering of Anheuser-Busch InBev with already established brewers in China is a perfect idea as it assists the company to market its brands along with already products in the market. The idea also reduces competition that the rival companies may offer in the market as the completion may lower profits (Esterl, 2013). Off shoring is a way of outsourcing an enterprise in another nation to enhance the growth of the company. For instance, Anheuser-Busch InBev Company setting up its breweries in china is a form of off shoring in order to tap a market that other brewers have not fully satisfied with the product (Esterl, 2013). The top five beer consuming countries in terms of the total amounts of beer drink are, China, America, Brazil, Germany and Russia. The best strategy for the InBev company to market its products in one of these heavy beer consuming nations is by partnering with the local beer producing companies to ease competition of its products with the local rivals in that country (Esterl,

Budget Planning and Putting Learning into Practice Assignment

Budget Planning and Putting Learning into Practice - Assignment Example Being significantly under or over budget means that there are significant changes in some factors that were not foreseen or anticipated at the time these budgets were made. The information therefore does not necessarily mean that the organization need to come in exactly as planned because at the onset, it is understood that these are just benchmarks for planned performance. As emphasized, â€Å"preoccupation with the dollars and cents in the budget, or being rigid and inflexible, is usually counterproductive† (Garrison, Noreen, & Brewer, 2009, p. 383). For example, if the budget for sales for the year 2013 was stated as $5,000,000; significantly under budget means arriving at actual sales figure of just $2,000,000 and the organization should verify the causes of this variance. Applying what one learned from the theories and concepts of managerial accounting would assist in making one more productive in the work place through the provision of direction and guidance in principles and techniques that have been tested to be the best practices through time. As emphasized, managerial accounting assists managers through the performance of three vital activities: planning, controlling, and decision making (Garrison, Noreen, & Brewer, 2009). Through strategies and techniques in undertaking these relevant functions, managers are able to make responsible and effective decisions after the use of analytical decision-making tools, which are learned through managerial accounting. For example, in learning the concepts on planning, the manager would be made aware of taking into account purchasing for raw materials, where the costs of which are projected to increase by as much as 30% for the coming year. Therefore, through planning, the manager could purchase appropriate volumes of these raw materials to avail of its low prices before the new and increased price would be implemented. In doing so, revenues and profits are maximized as costs are

Aging and Disability Worksheet Essay Example for Free

Aging and Disability Worksheet Essay Part I Identify 2 or 3 issues faced by the aging population. 1.Employment discrimination 2. Poverty 3. Inadequate care Answer the following questions in 100 to 200 words each. Provide citations for all the sources you use. †¢What is ageism? How does ageism influence the presence of diversity in society? According to Schaefer (2012), ageism is a term which refers to prejudice and discrimination against the elderly. â€Å"Ageism reflects a deep uneasiness among young and middle-aged people about growing old† (Schaefer, 2012, p. 395). Our society looks to youthfulness as successfulness; therefore, the elderly threaten those who want to be young and successful; thus influencing diversity in society. The elderly are seen as unessential, unneeded, and a constant reminder we one day will be old as well. So we shy away from associating with the elderly; so we do not have a constant reminder of our own ageing and immortality. Reference: Schaefer, R. T. (2012). Racial and ethnic groups (13th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. †¢What is the Age Discriminitation in Employment Act (ADEA)? How does the ADEA address issues for the aging population? â€Å"The federal Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA) which went into effect in 1968, was passed to protect workers 40 years of age or older from being fired because of their age and replaced with younger workers who  presumably would receive lower salaries† (Schaefer, 2012, p. 396). The ADEA provides a resource when there are suspicions of age discrimination in the workplace when it comes to hiring or not promoting or training ageing workers. Reference: Schaefer, R. T. (2012). Racial and ethnic groups (13th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. †¢What is being done to address the issues you identified? Many companies have been taken to court and charged with violating the ADEA. â€Å"According to the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, between 1999 and 2004, complaints of age discrimination rose more than 41 percent† (Schaefer, 2012, p. 396). Some studies suggest older workers are more of an asset to their employers, are absent less often and are more effective salespeople than their younger co-workers; therefore, diminishing the stereotype of the older employee is a less valuable employee. Reference: Schaefer, R. T. (2012). Racial and ethnic groups (13th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. †¢Is the number of aging population expected to rise in numbers or decrease? The aging population is expected to increase significantly will into the twenty-first century. With the decline in mortality rates and the baby boomer generation aging the â€Å"proportion over age 65 increases from less than on in 10 in 1960 to almost one in four by 2050† (Schaefer, 2012, p. 395) Reference: Schaefer, R. T. (2012). Racial and ethnic groups (13th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. †¢What types of legislation may or may not be affected by the aging population? The ADEA is one type of legislation which has affected the aging population;  ensuring they have recourse if discriminated against in the workplace. Today the Affordable Care Act will affect the aging population; however, to what extent is still uncertain at this time. Legislation which concerns pension provisions is another area which will directly affect the ageing population. Reference: Schaefer, R. T. (2012). Racial and ethnic groups (13th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. †¢How does poverty affect the aging population? â€Å"The aged who are most likely to experience poverty are the same people more likely to be poor earlier in their lives; female-headed households and racial and ethnic minorities. Although overall the aged are doing well economical, poverty remains a particularly difficult problem for the thousands of older adults who are impoverished annually by paying for long-term medical care† (Schaefer, 2012, p. 397). Will the Affordable Care Act ease the burden faced by the elderly who are impoverished by debilitating long-term diseases? Reference: Schaefer, R. T. (2012). Racial and ethnic groups (13th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall Part II Answer the following questions in 100 to 200 words each. Provide citations for all the sources you use. †¢What does the ADA provide for people with disabilities? The ADA â€Å"prohibits bias in employment, transportation, public accommodations, and telecommunications against people with disabilities† (Schaefer, 2012, p. 401). The ADA is considered the most sweeping antidiscrimination legislation since the Civil Rights Act of 1964; thus, ensuring people with disabilities are no longer discriminated against. Reference: Schaefer, R. T. (2012). Racial and ethnic groups (13th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall †¢How have people with disabilities been treated in the past? People with disabilities have been discriminated against in the past, unable to easily use public transportation, unable to easily enter public buildings, and basically treated as second class citizens. The Americans with Disabilities Act was enacted to level the playing field so to speak. Making the once inaccessible areas or participating life activities easier for them to maneuver. Reference: Schaefer, R. T. (2012). Racial and ethnic groups (13th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall †¢How has the attitude toward people with disabilities changed over time? Attitudes towards people with disabilities have changes significantly over time. Those who were once shipped off to intuitions are now productive members of society. Many groups across the United States sprang up utilizing this demographic in meaningful employment positions. In my community we have a group who work with the disabled from collecting sensitive materials for shredding, managing thrift shops, to years ago sewing the scarfs Elvis Presley used while preforming. Today the opportunities for those with disabilities have come a long way; however, the fight is not over, there is still more work to be done to ensure equality for all. Reference: Schaefer, R. T. (2012). Racial and ethnic groups (13th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall †¢What are some unique circumstances or issues encountered by people with disabilities? There are numerous circumstances or issues encountered by people with disabilities daily. The sheer task of accomplishing anything seems  insurmountable. Those with physical disabilities must depend on the help of others to simply exist let alone pursue a meaningful life. Public transportation can be difficult; sidewalks were not always wheelchair friendly, handicapped parking was non-existent which makes it extremely difficult to live. What about the being looked at as abnormal, those with disabilities must endure tremendous amounts of awkward moments daily from those who are not disabled. †¢What is being done to address those issues? The ADA has brought awareness to the plight of those with both mental and physical disabilities by ensuring there is no discrimination against this group. However I believe awareness is another step to address the prejudice and discrimination against people with disabilities. We must be able to look past a person’s disabilities to see the true person they are, and not label them for their disability. †¢What types of legislation have been introduced to address issues faced by people with disabilities? The American’s with Disabilities Act is the most notable legislation address issues faced by people with disabilities. What type of legislation will the future hold? I believe the ADA has address all the concerns for this demographic; however, in the future there may be some revisions to the interpretation of the legislation ensuring everyone with disabilities is serviced fully.

The SWOT analysis

The SWOT analysis PG is a global manufacturer and marketer of consumer products. It operates in five distinct business segments: fabric and home care, beauty care, baby and family care, health care and snacks and beverages. It has some of the most well-known and established brands in its portfolio but faces intense competition from other global consumer giants as well as local companies. Strengths Large scale of operations PG has significant scale advantages. It is the global leader in all its four core categories fabric and home care, beauty care, baby and family care, health care. Its products are sold in over 160 countries worldwide with manufacturing capabilities in over 42 countries. The company manufactures and markets close to 300 products. It derives substantial economies from its scale of operations in finance, logistics, marketing, research, new product development, innovation, technology and other functions. The companys huge buying power (from commodities to media) is being progressively leveraged through global procurement and services. A large scale gives PG significant competitive advantage against the smaller, unorganized players in local markets. Strong branding PG is one of the worlds most successful brand creation and brand building companies. The company participates in more than 40 product categories with 300 brands in roughly 60 markets. Some of its very well-known brands include Tide, Pampers, Bounty, Charmin, Cover Girl, Pantene, and Clairol. Moreover, as of 2004, the company had 13 brands with sales exceeding one billion dollars. Together, these brands have sales of over $24 billion. PG continuous involvement in consumer research helps it understand, anticipate and respond to consumer needs and wants and hence create marketing and advertising innovations more effectively and efficiently than many other companies. PG brand leadership helps it implement brand building innovations with retail and media partners in ways that few companies can match. It has one of the largest and strongest portfolios of trusted, quality brands, including Pampers, Tide, Ariel, Always, Whisper, Pantene, Bounty, Pringles, Folgers, Charmin, Downy, Lenor, Iams , Crest, Clairol Nice n Easy, Actonel, Dawn and Olay. These brands have leading market share in their respective categories, an offer the company a significant edge over its competitors. Product innovation PG creates more new brands and categories than any other consumer goods company. In 2003, three of the top 10 new non-food products introduced in the US were PG products. Over the past eight years, PG has introduced the number one or number two new non-food products in the US every year. PGs brand-creation and product development leadership is driven by the companys enormous research and development capacity. The company has nearly 7500 researchers working in 20 technical centres on four continents. It has more than 29,000 patented technologies for its products. Strong performance in core categories On a worldwide basis, fabric home care, beauty care, and baby family care products are Procter Gambles largest businesses, contributing a total of roughly 80% of sales. PGs fabric and home care is also its largest and oldest business and it continues to grow to record levels. The segments net sales grew 10% to $15.26 billion in 2005. The baby and family care and heath care divisions recorded an even higher growth in net sales. The net sales from the baby and family care division grew 11% to $11.9 billion while health care business recorded net sales growth of 11% to $7.8 billion in 2005. Strong performance by its core business groups is one of the prime reasons contributing to the companys above industry average revenue growth rates, and has significantly helped the company to grow to a stage where it is virtually hedged against threat from smaller new entrants. Developing markets infrastructure PGs developing markets infrastructure is a huge strategic advantage. The company has developed a best in class distribution infrastructure consisting of exclusive distributors in fast growing markets like China, Russia, Poland, the Philippines and India. Unlike most of its competitors, who use agnostic wholesalers that sell a variety of competing products, PGs network, while independently owned and operated, sell only PG HPC products (although often they carry various no competing food products). PGs scale allows these distributors to achieve higher dollar profit (not profit margin) while insuring that PGs products get all the distributors attention. Moreover, because of the large distribution pipe (unlike the multi-tributary wholesaler system), PG is able get the breadth of its products to market faster and more efficiently, even in the outer reaches of some of these developing markets, without multiple wholesaler markups that typically occur under the wholesaler system. The company s highly efficient markets infrastructure has helped the company in considerably increasing the speed at which its products reach the market and the companys overall market scalability vis-ÃÆ'Â  -vis its peers. Weaknesses Customer concentration The companys operations are heavily concentrated among its top customers. PGs largest customer, Wal-Mart, accounted for 18% (2003), 17% (2002) and 15% (2001) of sales. PGs top 10 customers account for 35% of its sales. A financial hardship experienced any of these customers; or a substantial decrease in sales to any one of the top customers could materially affect revenues and profitability of the company. Performance of the Clairol business Since the acquisition of Clairol in 2001, PG has been aggressive in using its distribution channels overseas to expand Clairol Herbal Essences shampoos and conditioners into new markets. In the US, however, the brands rapid growth before PG acquired Clairol has proven difficult to maintain and Herbal Essences has lost share in an environment of aggressive competitive promotional spending. With regard to the hair colorants side of Clairol, its 35% market share (approximately) in the US (number two position) has slipped further to market share leader LOreal. This in a scenario where global hair color is expected to grow at mid-to-high single digit rates in the next few years. The companys inability to grow its Clairol business could have a negative effect on the PG Beauty division. Overexposure to mature markets PG remains largely a mature-market company, with only 26% of sales and 22% of profits generated outside the US and Western Europe. Moreover the company is primarily exposed to mature categories in these markets, such as laundry detergents and paper. This indicates that the company focuses on leveraging its scale which often means growing where it already has a sizeable detergent and/or consumer paper business. The downside is that this strategy does not necessarily align its portfolio to tap growth, mainly in developing and emerging markets. As a result only 35% of PGs sales are in developing and emerging countries and its total market share in the FMCG segment is estimated to be below 20% as compared with 27% for Unilever. In contrast, its share in developed markets is estimated at 37% or twice Unilevers 18%. The companys overexposure to mature markets could act as a setback to future growth prospects. Opportunities Developing markets The consumer products business in developing markets is expected to be a significant opportunity for FMCG majors globally. This is primarily due to the fact that these markets are witnessing growth across three basic demographic factors: population growth, household formation and household income growth. These factors have driven developed market growth for decades and are now driving strong growth in many developing markets. China, for example, is now considered one of the most lucrative markets by FMCG companies, which could be further explored by the company. Due to growth across developing markets, PG can look towards achieving substantial growth by focusing on these higher-growth, structurally attractive markets. Gillette acquisition PG and Gillette are currently category captains at retailers in many of their respective product categories (given their leadership market share positions in their categories). Therefore the combination of these two dominant players will imply that they would to able to summon their competitive advantages across a wider variety of key categories, thereby increasing their competitive onslaught on smaller home and personal care (HPC competitors and private labels. Furthermore, the two companies also benefit from synergies in oral care, which could be a significant positive for PG. Other revenue upsides expected from the merger include Gillettes growth potential in emerging markets; cross-leveraging shaving and skin care brands and technologies; and, go-to-market efficiencies. The Gillette merger is expected to significantly add value to the company and help it further strengthen its already leading market position. New product pipeline PG has announced a full pipeline of new products to come in 2005. This is a clear evidence of PGs intense commitment and focus on its core business. Some of the most noted announcements include the launches of Hugo Boss Skin Care for men; Tamp ax Fresh tampons (the companys first scented flushable tampon, priced at a 10-15% premium to base Tampax); Iams Savory Sauces for dog and Iams MultiCat pet food; Charmin Basic toilet tissue (launched in February 2005 and Bounty Basic paper towels (launched in April 2005), both selling at a 15% discount to the brands base products; Bounty Glass and Surface Care towels; Charmin Mega Roll toilet tissue; and Tide Simple Pleasures. The launch of new products would significantly help the company in pushing forward its revenue generation across some of the otherwise matured product categories in the FMCG market. Threats Intense competition PG operates in a very competitive market, with rivals including consumer giants such as Johnson Johnson, Unilever and Kimberly-Clark. Each of these has revenues in excess of $10 billion. Private labels or store brands strive to match innovation quickly and try to present a compelling value alternative in many categories. This requires the company to continually strive to develop innovative products and price its goods competitively. For instance, sales in PGs beauty division could weaken sequentially as a result of an aggressive innovation drive from LOreal. Throughout 2005, LOreal is expected to launch a large number of new products globally. An increase in competitive onslaught by a majority of the companys competitors is expected to further challenge the companys growth. Increase in prices of raw materials The company is witnessing a significant increase in its raw material prices. Oil prices are up an average of nearly 40% year-to-date in calendar 2005 (after increasing 34% in 2004 and 19% in 2003), while resin prices are up an average of 14% (versus a 13% increase in 2004 and 21% increase in 2003) and pulp prices are up 8% (after rising 18% in 2004 and 14% in 2003). As a result of PG is facing higher commodities costs, which is expected to have a negative bearing over the companys earnings. ECs Gillette deal stipulations In 2005 EC announced that its only stipulation to the closing of the Gillette deal is PGs sale of its Crest Spinbrush business (brand which holds only a roughly 5% share of the power toothbrush market in Europe, representing nearly $200 million in sales to PG globally) as well as the licensing out of its oral care brand names associated with the Spinbrush, including Crest, Blend-a-Dent and Blend-a-Med. The licensing out of some of PGs oral care brand names has raised a concern over the companys ability to preserve the integrity of those brands given that those brands represent important future growth drivers for PGs toothpaste business. Furthermore this also raises a risk of the US Federal Trade Commission asking the company to further divest some of its other businesses. Uncertainty in pharmaceuticals business PGs Intrinsa, a prescription drug designed to counteract the loss of sexual desire in post-menopausal women, was rejected by the FDA in December 2004. The company is still waiting to hear from the FDA as to the extent of the required further testing of the product, to the extent its economical (the sample size is not too broad and the time frame of the test is not too long) span.. Concerns are also being raised over the FDA status of another drug soon to be launched by PG, Pexelizumab (a drug designed to reduce infarction and mortality post cardiac bypass surgery). This is primarily because the companys pharmaceuticals track record is marred by the withdrawal of both Vioxx and Celebrex from the market, in highly-publicized cases. The companys poor pharmaceuticals track record combined with an uncertain outlook for two of its major drug releases is expected to negatively impact the companys ability to grow in the highly lucrative over-the-counter pharmaceuticals market.

Internationalisation of Public Relations Education

Internationalisation of Public Relations Education Introduction The main theme of the dissertation is internationalisation of public relations education. It is quite a broad topic and can be reviewed and discussed from different points of view. In this regard the selected literature first examines international public relations concepts and secondly an impact it has on public relations education. Therefore, literature review has been divided into the following major themes: International public relations (IPR) and International public relations education (IPRE). The chapter will begin by presenting the main debates about international public relations and its concepts alongside with a brief overview of factors influencing it. It will be followed by a section presenting state of research on IPR. The discussion will then move to section two international public relations education, exploring the requisites and challenges for internationalisation. Finally the chapter will summarise the key themes and points identified. The major part of the literature review focuses on contemporary research, defined as 1989-2009. International PR A growing number of publications document the development and challenges of the public relations in every major continent and region of the world (Nally, 1991, Moss et al., 1997, Moss et al., 2003, Sriramesh and Vercic, 2003b, Van Ruler and Vercic, 2004, Freitag and Stokes, 2009). This research refers term global PR to globalisation of the profession, which is being practises and recognised in more countries throughout the globe, while International PR refers to the planning and implementation of programmes and campaigns carried out abroad or for international audience. Hence international PR education refers to the process of adopting professional training to International PR concepts and demand. Public relations is still relatively new concern for management, even though its modern origins can be traced to the end of the last century (White, 1991). According to (Cutlip, 1994), a key researcher in the history of public relations in the U.S., the first international public relations agency The Hamilton Wright Organization was founded in 1908. International communities of professionals and scholars are increasingly interested in transferring knowledge, experiences, and best practices from national to transnational scenarios. This advancement is generated by the increasing role of public relations which is driven largely by the influence of new information technologies and globalisation (Flodin, 2003). Drawing upon this, DiStaso et al. (2009) discussed the effects of globalisation, that began with the Maastricht Treaty and NAFTAA in 1992, the WTO in 1994 and claiming it had great impact on the public relations industry. According to Szondis (2009, p.115) International public relations is the planned communication activity of a (multinational) organisation, a supra- or international institution or government through interactions in the target country which facilitates the organisation (or government) to achieve its policy or business objectives without harming the interests of the publics. There have been papers which presented international PR to be simply about how to overcome barriers that are created by other cultures, including language, laws or cultural issues, which are often indentified as problems (Wilcox et al., 2001), rather than opportunities or the manifestation of diversity. The most frequently referenced paper which stands against IPR has been Angell (1990) asserted that the variance between local countries was so great as to preclude any possibility of globalisation. A much different study, also highly referenced, has been provided by Pavlik (1987), who as early as the 1980s considered IPR one of the most rapidly growing areas of the profession, and one of the least understood. The problem with defining difference between domestically and internationally done public relations is that there is not enough research or critical assessment. While basic principles do not change, the way they are carried out from culture to culture and country to country, and the attitudes and values embedded within those different cultures or countries, are different (Wakefield, 2007b). A similar study was conducted by Botan (1992, p. 157), who argued that international public relations is always intercultural. The existing public relations body of knowledge, and public relations curricula around the world, have a U.S. bias (Sriramesh, 2002). U.S. paradigm, however, strikes with the idea of that European or non-U.S. perceptions of public relations become more of value in the twenty first century. A US professor and professional Robert Wakefield (2007b), who have been practicing and researching in the area of IPR for almost two decades, believes that principles and practices of PR in Europe, emphasising social role of public relations, are more promising for effective PR in the multinational than the American-based PR-as-marketing-tool approach. He, alongside the majority of new PR schools, supports paradigms of PR incoming out of places other than the U.S. Therefore, need and call for the elsewhere theories and concepts was also a factor for a research in international/global PR. Ovaitt (1988, p.5) made an interesting suggestion saying that it was not a popular idea with marketing and advertising experts when they started thinking about internationalisation decades ago and it was not popular with public relations practitioners back to late 1980s. The idea is that what these professionals do for a living might be done on a global basis global in the sense of achieving some significant level of standardisation, not only of what is offered to customers, but also how it is presented and promoted. Public relations as a profession is not necessarily understood and practised in the same manner all around the world. This is not news per se, as several scholars (Sharpe, 1992, Vercic et al., 1996, Taylor, 2000, Rhee, 2002, Valentini, 2007) for many years have underlined that public relations requires a global understanding of cultural differences. Different studies (Kent and Taylor, 1999, Lee, 2005) show that public relations practitioners are increasingly required to be able to communicate with different international publics, no matter the size of the organisation they are working for, or whether it is private or public, including non-profit organisations. After the International Association of Business Communicators (IABC) Excellence Study yielded a review of normative principles (Grunig, 1992), Vercic et al. (1996) explained the importance of identifying five contextual variables that influence the practice of the normative principles. Vercic, Grunig, and Grunig (Vercic et al., 1996) proposed a global theory of public relations that was elaborated by Sriramesh and Vercic (2003a, 2003b, 2009) in their Global Public Relations Handbook and by Sriramesh (2009) in a special issue of PRism. Their global public relations theory attempted to answer the question of whether public relations theory and practice should be unique to each country or culture or whether it should be practiced in the same way everywhere. Authors answered this question by theorising that global public relations should fall in the middle between standardisation and individualisation (Grunig, 2009). The theoretical framework of Sriramesh and Vercic (2003) has been used to assess the status of public relations in countries around the world. Contextualised studies are the core component of the global public relations concept. As Vercic (2009) reported, international PR practices should represent the best practices anywhere because of their necessary complexities and reach. Global theory is not a positive theory, which describes a type of public relations that currently is practiced everywhere in the world. Research, such as that reported in Sriramesh and Vercic (2003, 2009), does show that there are many idiosyncrasies in public relations practice around the world that reflect cultural differences. It also shows that the one worldwide universal in public relations practice is what is J. Grunig have called the press agentry/publicity model (Grunig et al., 1995)-the least effective of the models. Rather, their global theory is a normative theory that argues that public relations will be most effective throughout most parts of the world (Grunig, 2009, p.2). Emphasising cross-cultural effects on reputation in multinational organizations Wakefield (2007b, 2008) argues that there still is an important distinction between global and domestic public relations practices, and that understanding those differences will contribute to better global practice. More specifically, recent research has also called into questions of need to understand how culture affects public relations. There are numbers of key researches (Grunig et al., 1995) who have written papers specifically on the subject. A similar study was conducted by Neff (1991), who has indicated that economic development is leading public relations firms down a path requiring knowledge of culture and language in addition to public relations. Perhaps one of the most influential recent publications on multiculturalism in public relations education was produced by Sriramesh (Sriramesh, 2002, Sriramesh, 2003). He has also reported that public relations education has not kept pace with the rapi d globalisation that has occurred since 1992 (Sriramesh, 2002). Sriramesh (2009) called for a need for a more thoughtful representation of many of the generic principles of public relations practice to suit the local environment, so that the body of knowledge is more holistic and relevant to global demands. However, there still is a room for an assumption that not all the practitioners require international training and international perspective. RESEARCH / CRITICS: Since the advent of the Internet, it is even more tempting to view PR practice as the same anywhere, and therefore it decreases attempts to produce research or principles that need to view à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“cross-border PR as different (Wakefield, 2007a). Despite the numerous calls for research, reviewed works and studies on global (national) public relations released in the 2000s (see table 1) (Portugal, United States see table) have recorded that this area of research is underrepresented. Despite global trends underlining increased internationalisation, these results can be interpreted to indicate that Researchers have not paid enough attention to the international perspective. An important indicator is the place international public relations occupy in the list of priority research topics. One recent example is a Study of the Priorities for Public Relations Research conducted by Deputy Dean of Media School of Bournemouth University (UK) Tom Watson (Watson, 2008, Watson, 2007)  [1 ]  .He sent 26 public relations topics to a Delphi study panel and the Top Ten PR research topics were identified, however, international perspective was excluded from the list. A US professor and professional Robert Wakefield responded critically to Watsons Delphi study: First, I was surprised in finding that the topic fell all the way out of the top ten. After all, arent PR issues and challenges, along with its overall scope of practice, becoming more international with each passing year?(2007a, p. 6) Nonetheless he added: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“There really are no more studies being done on international public relations now than have been done over the course of the last three decades. Those that are being published are increasingly making such statements as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“there is no such thing as local PR anymore, or à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“today, everything is global. Well, if this represents what academics and practitioners are thinking, then it would stand to reason that no real different research needs to be done-that ANY PR principles, even if they are all traditionally domestic in nature, would suffice for research or practice anywhere in the world (2007a, p.7). The seminal critique in this area is also by Sriramesh (2009, p.6), who argues: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“When scholars think of, and discuss, public relations, the global perspective is often overlooked. Srirameshs (2009) critique of Mackey (Mackey, 2003), who claimed to introduce the various contemporary theories of public relations in the inaugural issue of Prism is also indicative: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“The author attempted to review à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“the changing vistas in public relations theory, there was not a single mention of any advances in global public relations theorising in that piece even though by 2003/that time there were several advances worth reporting'(2009, p.8). Another example is Distasso (2009). Authors surveyed 312 public relations executives and educators to examine how well practitioners and instructors perceive public relations students to be prepared for the practice, the content and value of public relations curricula and, the future of public relations education in the United States. Even though scholar mentioned globalisation as a factor increasingly influencing public relations practice he had not included it in the questionnaires or research questions. Somewhat it contrast are papers from the annual International Public Relations Research Symposium Bledcom, which reflect the diverse and up-to-date research traditions amongst scholars working in the field of public relations both within the USA and Europe (Moss et al., 1997, Newman and Vercic, 2002, Moss et al., 2003, Sriramesh and Vercic, 2003a, Sriramesh, 2004, Van Ruler and Vercic, 2004, Van Ruler et al., 2008, Sriramesh and Vercic, 2009). These are scholars, who systematically examines the priorities for PR research and determine international agenda These differences in research agenda are reflected/explained, to some degree, in the/by Scholars like Sriramesh, Vercic, Wakefield and others highlighted the important point that an issue of international public relations is not reflected enough in the research questions. International public relations education (IPRE) As a corollary to the process of globalisation has been the recognition of the need to make public relations education more internationally focused and future public relations professionals more internationally and interculturally competent (Lane DiStephano, 1992) / Huthcings et al., 2002 There have been numbers of calls for new public relations curricula aimed at educating staffs that can understand and meet increasing international social, economic and political complexities and challenges. (Pratt and Ogbondah, 1994, p. 13). The International Association of Universities (1998) supported the need for business schools to be more international in their strategy, claiming higher education must integrate an intercultural dimension into its teaching and research, if it is to fulfil its role and maintain excellence. (Hutchings et al., 2002, p. 58). Another rationale for an international public relations course is the accelerating pace of societal and technological change today. These cha nges call for adaptations in academic curricula and professional development programs. There were written dozen papers on justification of international public relations education based on research in the different areas. Some went radical claiming that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“any curriculum that excludes international public relations courses is ineffective in addressing student and practitioner needs, particularly in the next century (21 century).(Pratt and Ogbondah, 1994) p.9 Factors what influence the development of IPRE are mostly the same, however they have different interpretations. The need for international courses in public relations is demonstrated further by the growing global recognition of public relations degree programs and education, a phenomenon that Cantor (1984) predicted more than twenty years ago. And indeed, previous investigation has established that the call for internationalisation of public relations education has been there for a long time and comes from both industry and academia sectors (Neff, 1991, Cottone et al., 1985). However, disagreements between practitioners and educators on a blueprint for international public relations education have also been documented (Pratt and Ogbondah, 1994). A decade old survey of U.S. public relations educators and practitioners that explored the state of curricula and content in public relations education found that both practitioners and educators perceive need to incorporate courses and cont ent that will prepare future practitioners for the global landscape (Neff et al., 1999). A Public relations is a multidisciplinary area of study and practice that must change as rapidly as the context and society in which it exists (Baskin, 1989, p. 35). As public relations continues to be a globalised profession, curriculum should be updated to reflect the practice. Ten years later similar study has recorded, that having a global perspective and experience with a variety of cultures are necessary but lacking skills for advanced level practitioners (DiStaso et al., 2009, p.269). An important consideration in providing students with some skills in achieving cross-cultural understanding is the recognition that, as future business professionals and leaders, they will live in a society increasingly characterised by international labour mobility and multiculturalism. The international manager or employee will be an individual who will spend their working lives in several distinct job areas working for several organisations as well as making several sojourns to various international postings. This means that the new style employee will need to be cosmopolitan, multilingual, multifaceted and what Schneider Barsoux (1997, p. 157) refer to as a capacity to operate à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“across national borders somewhat like James Bond. Public relations education at all levels and in both communication and MBA programmes should educate students to practise public relations globally (Grunig and Grunig, 2002). However, not only do students need to be trained and prepared for this mobility, but even those who do not move to another nation face the recognition that the domestic work environment also requires some responsiveness to differing cultures (Hutchings et al., 2002, p. 69). Sriramesh (2009, p.6) makes a reasonable argument that even textbooks in the US and the UK should contain more global cases and interpretations so as to give their own students a more international and holistic education, thus broadening their horizons. It is indicated that authors of universitys level public relations textbooks have not yet realised the growing importance of international public relations and thus deal marginally with it. The International Public Relations Association (IPRA) has drawn on its international membership to research and recommend standards for public relations education and has established the results of its work in two Gold papers in 1982 and 1990 (IPRA (1982) Gold paper No. 4, A Model for Public Relations Education for Professional Practice, and (1990) Gold Paper No.7, Public Relations Education Recommendations and Standards). (White, 1991) p.184-185 Not much has changed since that time. WAYS: Number of general papers were designed in response to the need for public relations education to produce well-trained, culturally sensitive practitioners (Miller, 1992, Ekachai and Komolsevin, 1998, Burbules and Torres, 2000, Bardhan, 2003, Dickerson, 2005, Tuleja, 2008). With the increasing importance of international communication, some educators had considered creating a course dedicated to international public relations (Pratt and Ogbondah, 1994, Taylor, 2001). In a special edition of Public Relations Review on developing teaching related materials, Taylor (2001) offered guidance to public relations educators on how to develop an international public relations curriculum because: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“New communication technologies and global communication processes create more frequent international communication (Taylor, 2001, p.2). Nevertheless, some of the Taylors conclusions sounded far too decisive: The most comprehensive way to internationalize the public relations curriculum is to offer a course dedicated to international public relations (p. 74). Creedon and Al-Khaja (2005) analysed how adding cultural competency to the list of skills and competencies required in educational programs presents an opportunity to educate a generation that will accept difference and value a global culture separate from national identity. Then again the study was rather limited the authors conducted a survey of accredited programs to determine whether or not a history course was required of their majors. Another empirical-based study argued that just talking about the importance if IPR in the classroom is not sufficient, students have to be able to live international public relations in order to understand its relevance (Bardhan, 1999, p. 19). An important portion of literature on international public relations education suggests the necessity for students to learn about other countries through immersion. According to Porth (Porth, 1997, Tuleja, 2008) the international study tour course may be a legitimate answer to critics of education who urge business schools to à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“go global and to create stronger ties with the international business and academic communities. More specifically, recent research has also called into question the assumption of studying internationally. For instance, Hutchings et al. (2002, p. 58)suggests that the challenge for the education is how to devise a short-term study program that is effective in exposing international concepts to the student. Yet, foreign travel alone is not the panacea for internationalising PR education because it is difficult to manage even if having resources. Hutchings study is focused on going abroad, even so it may make some contribution to understanding of glo bal consciousness characterised as moving towards a recognition and appreciation of increasingly global diversity and interdependence. Arguments about which is the best approach to international public relations education, courses and its numbers, or changing the context with its live experience and observations, largely missed the important point that methods have to be fit for their purposes. For some purposes, this is the best, and in other cases the choice will be this and that. Furthermore, although those approaches rest on very different use of resources and possibilities, they can be complementary in the hands of future research and need to be incompatible. Many studies would benefit from mindfully using each approach for different purposes at different stages of the internationalisation. Fuller discussions of this are to be found in some public relations papers, including (Neff, 1991, Dibrova and Kabanova, 2004, Peterson and Mak, 2006, Chung, 2007/8, Dolby and Rahman, 2008). CHALLENGES/BARRIERS: Authors such as Kalupa and Carroll Bateman (1980) have suggested that public relations educators have failed maintain the currency of the teaching in relation to the practice. On the other hand, Holbrook (1985, 1995) has been one of the most prominent critics of the idea of selecting research topics based on what is of interest to practitioners. He has argued that such an orientation tarnishes the purity of the academic endeavour. Amongst other challenges Bardhan (1999) recorded that educators feel unprepared at present to handle the task effectively and lack of interest among students. Falb (1991, 1992) has claimed that because of putting public relations curriculums in either Mass Communications or Journalism public relations has been inhibited in its growth in academic and professional areas. Similar study was conducted by (Pincus et al., 1994), who argued that communication topics do not rate high in MBA programs: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“If public relations faculty do not champion the recognition of public relations topics in MBA programs, the profession will never realize entry to the highest levels of corporate decision making (1994: p.55) . Making an analogy, this statement might be extended by claiming that If public relations faculty do not champion the recognition of international public relations concepts in Postgraduate programs, the profession will lack behind present state of research and practice. This statement finds a reflection in recent research as well. Papers like Sriramesh (2002) claim that it is time for educators to integrate experiences from other continents into the PR body of knowledge, thereby building PR curricula that contribute to training truly multicultural PR professionals. CONCLUSION: Sriramesh and Vercic (2003) underlined the compelling need for a text describing and explaining public relations practices and body of knowledge in different parts of the world. Their call for research has been taken up and largely because it proposed a framework, which made it easier to facilitate global research. Thereby, by critically examining the framework scholars in different countries enrich international public relations body of knowledge and provides prove or counter-arguments to the Global theory. Nonetheless, it might be argued that among those five factors, which have been put forward by Sriramesh and Vercic (2003), one is missing professional PR training. In this regard it can be concluded the following. Firstly, such indicator as level of professional training can be considered as a sixth factor influencing practicing public relations in country. Secondly, on the basis of a global concept can be developed a similar concept and subsequently applied to the study of inte rnational public relations education. Thirdly, basing on data provided from the five factors, it allowed to determine the degree of standardization vs. localization of IPR programs and courses and to identify barriers and obstacles. Achieving internationalisation of public relations education is concluded to be important for three reasons. First, because many graduating students will be finding employment internationally and benefit from having been educated to be effective in differing cultural settings. Second, because rapid changes in national immigration policies have meant that many more nations are considerably more multicultural than they have been in the past and citizens need to be more conscious of diversity in their national and organisational surroundings. Third, because the pace of changes in the international political economy necessitates that people must be responsive to international economic and business forces. Thus, students who receive an internationally focused public relations education should be more culturally and socially aware and prepared to cope with the demands of rapid international economic, political and social change (Hutchings et al., 2002). Professional education and training are one of the major issues in every country in which public relations is practised. Even the US, where there are hundreds of public relations education are frequently expressed, and senior practitioners rise questions about the value of existing public relations education programmes (White, 1991, p. 184). Sommerness and Beaman (1994) found only few offerings of university courses emphasising international public relations across the United States at that time. However, most recent study has shown that some authors (Hatzitos and Lariscy, 2008) report an increased interest in scholarly research in international public relations and an effort to internationalise the public relations curricula at many U.S. universities. Despite the fact that significant gaps were found between desired outcomes and those actually found in the opinions of both practitioner and educators, certain surveys (Neff et al., 1999) have revealed strong agreement between educator s and practitioners regarding the training, experience and expertise outcomes needed for career development in public relations. Thus, while the goals of public relations education to certain extent seem clear, the means of achieving those goals, including curriculum, pedagogy, and assessment, may not be as clear. However, studies such as examining perception, asking whether or not IPR should be emphasised doesnt really contribute anymore as the concept have solidly grounded. There have been dozen papers reporting that call for a development. What more valuable for this particular research is the fact that international public relations education requires to be integrated into global PR perspective. International experiences, approaches and cases must be studied and shared between international academic societies. The literature review recorded a substantial gap in international public relations education research elsewhere than U.S. Therefore there is a need in further researching and describing development in IPRE globally. This particular study will explore perceptions and state of IPR education in two countries the United Kingdom and Russia. Internationalisation of Public Relations Education Internationalisation of Public Relations Education Introduction The main theme of the dissertation is internationalisation of public relations education. It is quite a broad topic and can be reviewed and discussed from different points of view. In this regard the selected literature first examines international public relations concepts and secondly an impact it has on public relations education. Therefore, literature review has been divided into the following major themes: International public relations (IPR) and International public relations education (IPRE). The chapter will begin by presenting the main debates about international public relations and its concepts alongside with a brief overview of factors influencing it. It will be followed by a section presenting state of research on IPR. The discussion will then move to section two international public relations education, exploring the requisites and challenges for internationalisation. Finally the chapter will summarise the key themes and points identified. The major part of the literature review focuses on contemporary research, defined as 1989-2009. International PR A growing number of publications document the development and challenges of the public relations in every major continent and region of the world (Nally, 1991, Moss et al., 1997, Moss et al., 2003, Sriramesh and Vercic, 2003b, Van Ruler and Vercic, 2004, Freitag and Stokes, 2009). This research refers term global PR to globalisation of the profession, which is being practises and recognised in more countries throughout the globe, while International PR refers to the planning and implementation of programmes and campaigns carried out abroad or for international audience. Hence international PR education refers to the process of adopting professional training to International PR concepts and demand. Public relations is still relatively new concern for management, even though its modern origins can be traced to the end of the last century (White, 1991). According to (Cutlip, 1994), a key researcher in the history of public relations in the U.S., the first international public relations agency The Hamilton Wright Organization was founded in 1908. International communities of professionals and scholars are increasingly interested in transferring knowledge, experiences, and best practices from national to transnational scenarios. This advancement is generated by the increasing role of public relations which is driven largely by the influence of new information technologies and globalisation (Flodin, 2003). Drawing upon this, DiStaso et al. (2009) discussed the effects of globalisation, that began with the Maastricht Treaty and NAFTAA in 1992, the WTO in 1994 and claiming it had great impact on the public relations industry. According to Szondis (2009, p.115) International public relations is the planned communication activity of a (multinational) organisation, a supra- or international institution or government through interactions in the target country which facilitates the organisation (or government) to achieve its policy or business objectives without harming the interests of the publics. There have been papers which presented international PR to be simply about how to overcome barriers that are created by other cultures, including language, laws or cultural issues, which are often indentified as problems (Wilcox et al., 2001), rather than opportunities or the manifestation of diversity. The most frequently referenced paper which stands against IPR has been Angell (1990) asserted that the variance between local countries was so great as to preclude any possibility of globalisation. A much different study, also highly referenced, has been provided by Pavlik (1987), who as early as the 1980s considered IPR one of the most rapidly growing areas of the profession, and one of the least understood. The problem with defining difference between domestically and internationally done public relations is that there is not enough research or critical assessment. While basic principles do not change, the way they are carried out from culture to culture and country to country, and the attitudes and values embedded within those different cultures or countries, are different (Wakefield, 2007b). A similar study was conducted by Botan (1992, p. 157), who argued that international public relations is always intercultural. The existing public relations body of knowledge, and public relations curricula around the world, have a U.S. bias (Sriramesh, 2002). U.S. paradigm, however, strikes with the idea of that European or non-U.S. perceptions of public relations become more of value in the twenty first century. A US professor and professional Robert Wakefield (2007b), who have been practicing and researching in the area of IPR for almost two decades, believes that principles and practices of PR in Europe, emphasising social role of public relations, are more promising for effective PR in the multinational than the American-based PR-as-marketing-tool approach. He, alongside the majority of new PR schools, supports paradigms of PR incoming out of places other than the U.S. Therefore, need and call for the elsewhere theories and concepts was also a factor for a research in international/global PR. Ovaitt (1988, p.5) made an interesting suggestion saying that it was not a popular idea with marketing and advertising experts when they started thinking about internationalisation decades ago and it was not popular with public relations practitioners back to late 1980s. The idea is that what these professionals do for a living might be done on a global basis global in the sense of achieving some significant level of standardisation, not only of what is offered to customers, but also how it is presented and promoted. Public relations as a profession is not necessarily understood and practised in the same manner all around the world. This is not news per se, as several scholars (Sharpe, 1992, Vercic et al., 1996, Taylor, 2000, Rhee, 2002, Valentini, 2007) for many years have underlined that public relations requires a global understanding of cultural differences. Different studies (Kent and Taylor, 1999, Lee, 2005) show that public relations practitioners are increasingly required to be able to communicate with different international publics, no matter the size of the organisation they are working for, or whether it is private or public, including non-profit organisations. After the International Association of Business Communicators (IABC) Excellence Study yielded a review of normative principles (Grunig, 1992), Vercic et al. (1996) explained the importance of identifying five contextual variables that influence the practice of the normative principles. Vercic, Grunig, and Grunig (Vercic et al., 1996) proposed a global theory of public relations that was elaborated by Sriramesh and Vercic (2003a, 2003b, 2009) in their Global Public Relations Handbook and by Sriramesh (2009) in a special issue of PRism. Their global public relations theory attempted to answer the question of whether public relations theory and practice should be unique to each country or culture or whether it should be practiced in the same way everywhere. Authors answered this question by theorising that global public relations should fall in the middle between standardisation and individualisation (Grunig, 2009). The theoretical framework of Sriramesh and Vercic (2003) has been used to assess the status of public relations in countries around the world. Contextualised studies are the core component of the global public relations concept. As Vercic (2009) reported, international PR practices should represent the best practices anywhere because of their necessary complexities and reach. Global theory is not a positive theory, which describes a type of public relations that currently is practiced everywhere in the world. Research, such as that reported in Sriramesh and Vercic (2003, 2009), does show that there are many idiosyncrasies in public relations practice around the world that reflect cultural differences. It also shows that the one worldwide universal in public relations practice is what is J. Grunig have called the press agentry/publicity model (Grunig et al., 1995)-the least effective of the models. Rather, their global theory is a normative theory that argues that public relations will be most effective throughout most parts of the world (Grunig, 2009, p.2). Emphasising cross-cultural effects on reputation in multinational organizations Wakefield (2007b, 2008) argues that there still is an important distinction between global and domestic public relations practices, and that understanding those differences will contribute to better global practice. More specifically, recent research has also called into questions of need to understand how culture affects public relations. There are numbers of key researches (Grunig et al., 1995) who have written papers specifically on the subject. A similar study was conducted by Neff (1991), who has indicated that economic development is leading public relations firms down a path requiring knowledge of culture and language in addition to public relations. Perhaps one of the most influential recent publications on multiculturalism in public relations education was produced by Sriramesh (Sriramesh, 2002, Sriramesh, 2003). He has also reported that public relations education has not kept pace with the rapi d globalisation that has occurred since 1992 (Sriramesh, 2002). Sriramesh (2009) called for a need for a more thoughtful representation of many of the generic principles of public relations practice to suit the local environment, so that the body of knowledge is more holistic and relevant to global demands. However, there still is a room for an assumption that not all the practitioners require international training and international perspective. RESEARCH / CRITICS: Since the advent of the Internet, it is even more tempting to view PR practice as the same anywhere, and therefore it decreases attempts to produce research or principles that need to view à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“cross-border PR as different (Wakefield, 2007a). Despite the numerous calls for research, reviewed works and studies on global (national) public relations released in the 2000s (see table 1) (Portugal, United States see table) have recorded that this area of research is underrepresented. Despite global trends underlining increased internationalisation, these results can be interpreted to indicate that Researchers have not paid enough attention to the international perspective. An important indicator is the place international public relations occupy in the list of priority research topics. One recent example is a Study of the Priorities for Public Relations Research conducted by Deputy Dean of Media School of Bournemouth University (UK) Tom Watson (Watson, 2008, Watson, 2007)  [1 ]  .He sent 26 public relations topics to a Delphi study panel and the Top Ten PR research topics were identified, however, international perspective was excluded from the list. A US professor and professional Robert Wakefield responded critically to Watsons Delphi study: First, I was surprised in finding that the topic fell all the way out of the top ten. After all, arent PR issues and challenges, along with its overall scope of practice, becoming more international with each passing year?(2007a, p. 6) Nonetheless he added: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“There really are no more studies being done on international public relations now than have been done over the course of the last three decades. Those that are being published are increasingly making such statements as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“there is no such thing as local PR anymore, or à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“today, everything is global. Well, if this represents what academics and practitioners are thinking, then it would stand to reason that no real different research needs to be done-that ANY PR principles, even if they are all traditionally domestic in nature, would suffice for research or practice anywhere in the world (2007a, p.7). The seminal critique in this area is also by Sriramesh (2009, p.6), who argues: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“When scholars think of, and discuss, public relations, the global perspective is often overlooked. Srirameshs (2009) critique of Mackey (Mackey, 2003), who claimed to introduce the various contemporary theories of public relations in the inaugural issue of Prism is also indicative: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“The author attempted to review à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“the changing vistas in public relations theory, there was not a single mention of any advances in global public relations theorising in that piece even though by 2003/that time there were several advances worth reporting'(2009, p.8). Another example is Distasso (2009). Authors surveyed 312 public relations executives and educators to examine how well practitioners and instructors perceive public relations students to be prepared for the practice, the content and value of public relations curricula and, the future of public relations education in the United States. Even though scholar mentioned globalisation as a factor increasingly influencing public relations practice he had not included it in the questionnaires or research questions. Somewhat it contrast are papers from the annual International Public Relations Research Symposium Bledcom, which reflect the diverse and up-to-date research traditions amongst scholars working in the field of public relations both within the USA and Europe (Moss et al., 1997, Newman and Vercic, 2002, Moss et al., 2003, Sriramesh and Vercic, 2003a, Sriramesh, 2004, Van Ruler and Vercic, 2004, Van Ruler et al., 2008, Sriramesh and Vercic, 2009). These are scholars, who systematically examines the priorities for PR research and determine international agenda These differences in research agenda are reflected/explained, to some degree, in the/by Scholars like Sriramesh, Vercic, Wakefield and others highlighted the important point that an issue of international public relations is not reflected enough in the research questions. International public relations education (IPRE) As a corollary to the process of globalisation has been the recognition of the need to make public relations education more internationally focused and future public relations professionals more internationally and interculturally competent (Lane DiStephano, 1992) / Huthcings et al., 2002 There have been numbers of calls for new public relations curricula aimed at educating staffs that can understand and meet increasing international social, economic and political complexities and challenges. (Pratt and Ogbondah, 1994, p. 13). The International Association of Universities (1998) supported the need for business schools to be more international in their strategy, claiming higher education must integrate an intercultural dimension into its teaching and research, if it is to fulfil its role and maintain excellence. (Hutchings et al., 2002, p. 58). Another rationale for an international public relations course is the accelerating pace of societal and technological change today. These cha nges call for adaptations in academic curricula and professional development programs. There were written dozen papers on justification of international public relations education based on research in the different areas. Some went radical claiming that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“any curriculum that excludes international public relations courses is ineffective in addressing student and practitioner needs, particularly in the next century (21 century).(Pratt and Ogbondah, 1994) p.9 Factors what influence the development of IPRE are mostly the same, however they have different interpretations. The need for international courses in public relations is demonstrated further by the growing global recognition of public relations degree programs and education, a phenomenon that Cantor (1984) predicted more than twenty years ago. And indeed, previous investigation has established that the call for internationalisation of public relations education has been there for a long time and comes from both industry and academia sectors (Neff, 1991, Cottone et al., 1985). However, disagreements between practitioners and educators on a blueprint for international public relations education have also been documented (Pratt and Ogbondah, 1994). A decade old survey of U.S. public relations educators and practitioners that explored the state of curricula and content in public relations education found that both practitioners and educators perceive need to incorporate courses and cont ent that will prepare future practitioners for the global landscape (Neff et al., 1999). A Public relations is a multidisciplinary area of study and practice that must change as rapidly as the context and society in which it exists (Baskin, 1989, p. 35). As public relations continues to be a globalised profession, curriculum should be updated to reflect the practice. Ten years later similar study has recorded, that having a global perspective and experience with a variety of cultures are necessary but lacking skills for advanced level practitioners (DiStaso et al., 2009, p.269). An important consideration in providing students with some skills in achieving cross-cultural understanding is the recognition that, as future business professionals and leaders, they will live in a society increasingly characterised by international labour mobility and multiculturalism. The international manager or employee will be an individual who will spend their working lives in several distinct job areas working for several organisations as well as making several sojourns to various international postings. This means that the new style employee will need to be cosmopolitan, multilingual, multifaceted and what Schneider Barsoux (1997, p. 157) refer to as a capacity to operate à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“across national borders somewhat like James Bond. Public relations education at all levels and in both communication and MBA programmes should educate students to practise public relations globally (Grunig and Grunig, 2002). However, not only do students need to be trained and prepared for this mobility, but even those who do not move to another nation face the recognition that the domestic work environment also requires some responsiveness to differing cultures (Hutchings et al., 2002, p. 69). Sriramesh (2009, p.6) makes a reasonable argument that even textbooks in the US and the UK should contain more global cases and interpretations so as to give their own students a more international and holistic education, thus broadening their horizons. It is indicated that authors of universitys level public relations textbooks have not yet realised the growing importance of international public relations and thus deal marginally with it. The International Public Relations Association (IPRA) has drawn on its international membership to research and recommend standards for public relations education and has established the results of its work in two Gold papers in 1982 and 1990 (IPRA (1982) Gold paper No. 4, A Model for Public Relations Education for Professional Practice, and (1990) Gold Paper No.7, Public Relations Education Recommendations and Standards). (White, 1991) p.184-185 Not much has changed since that time. WAYS: Number of general papers were designed in response to the need for public relations education to produce well-trained, culturally sensitive practitioners (Miller, 1992, Ekachai and Komolsevin, 1998, Burbules and Torres, 2000, Bardhan, 2003, Dickerson, 2005, Tuleja, 2008). With the increasing importance of international communication, some educators had considered creating a course dedicated to international public relations (Pratt and Ogbondah, 1994, Taylor, 2001). In a special edition of Public Relations Review on developing teaching related materials, Taylor (2001) offered guidance to public relations educators on how to develop an international public relations curriculum because: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“New communication technologies and global communication processes create more frequent international communication (Taylor, 2001, p.2). Nevertheless, some of the Taylors conclusions sounded far too decisive: The most comprehensive way to internationalize the public relations curriculum is to offer a course dedicated to international public relations (p. 74). Creedon and Al-Khaja (2005) analysed how adding cultural competency to the list of skills and competencies required in educational programs presents an opportunity to educate a generation that will accept difference and value a global culture separate from national identity. Then again the study was rather limited the authors conducted a survey of accredited programs to determine whether or not a history course was required of their majors. Another empirical-based study argued that just talking about the importance if IPR in the classroom is not sufficient, students have to be able to live international public relations in order to understand its relevance (Bardhan, 1999, p. 19). An important portion of literature on international public relations education suggests the necessity for students to learn about other countries through immersion. According to Porth (Porth, 1997, Tuleja, 2008) the international study tour course may be a legitimate answer to critics of education who urge business schools to à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“go global and to create stronger ties with the international business and academic communities. More specifically, recent research has also called into question the assumption of studying internationally. For instance, Hutchings et al. (2002, p. 58)suggests that the challenge for the education is how to devise a short-term study program that is effective in exposing international concepts to the student. Yet, foreign travel alone is not the panacea for internationalising PR education because it is difficult to manage even if having resources. Hutchings study is focused on going abroad, even so it may make some contribution to understanding of glo bal consciousness characterised as moving towards a recognition and appreciation of increasingly global diversity and interdependence. Arguments about which is the best approach to international public relations education, courses and its numbers, or changing the context with its live experience and observations, largely missed the important point that methods have to be fit for their purposes. For some purposes, this is the best, and in other cases the choice will be this and that. Furthermore, although those approaches rest on very different use of resources and possibilities, they can be complementary in the hands of future research and need to be incompatible. Many studies would benefit from mindfully using each approach for different purposes at different stages of the internationalisation. Fuller discussions of this are to be found in some public relations papers, including (Neff, 1991, Dibrova and Kabanova, 2004, Peterson and Mak, 2006, Chung, 2007/8, Dolby and Rahman, 2008). CHALLENGES/BARRIERS: Authors such as Kalupa and Carroll Bateman (1980) have suggested that public relations educators have failed maintain the currency of the teaching in relation to the practice. On the other hand, Holbrook (1985, 1995) has been one of the most prominent critics of the idea of selecting research topics based on what is of interest to practitioners. He has argued that such an orientation tarnishes the purity of the academic endeavour. Amongst other challenges Bardhan (1999) recorded that educators feel unprepared at present to handle the task effectively and lack of interest among students. Falb (1991, 1992) has claimed that because of putting public relations curriculums in either Mass Communications or Journalism public relations has been inhibited in its growth in academic and professional areas. Similar study was conducted by (Pincus et al., 1994), who argued that communication topics do not rate high in MBA programs: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“If public relations faculty do not champion the recognition of public relations topics in MBA programs, the profession will never realize entry to the highest levels of corporate decision making (1994: p.55) . Making an analogy, this statement might be extended by claiming that If public relations faculty do not champion the recognition of international public relations concepts in Postgraduate programs, the profession will lack behind present state of research and practice. This statement finds a reflection in recent research as well. Papers like Sriramesh (2002) claim that it is time for educators to integrate experiences from other continents into the PR body of knowledge, thereby building PR curricula that contribute to training truly multicultural PR professionals. CONCLUSION: Sriramesh and Vercic (2003) underlined the compelling need for a text describing and explaining public relations practices and body of knowledge in different parts of the world. Their call for research has been taken up and largely because it proposed a framework, which made it easier to facilitate global research. Thereby, by critically examining the framework scholars in different countries enrich international public relations body of knowledge and provides prove or counter-arguments to the Global theory. Nonetheless, it might be argued that among those five factors, which have been put forward by Sriramesh and Vercic (2003), one is missing professional PR training. In this regard it can be concluded the following. Firstly, such indicator as level of professional training can be considered as a sixth factor influencing practicing public relations in country. Secondly, on the basis of a global concept can be developed a similar concept and subsequently applied to the study of inte rnational public relations education. Thirdly, basing on data provided from the five factors, it allowed to determine the degree of standardization vs. localization of IPR programs and courses and to identify barriers and obstacles. Achieving internationalisation of public relations education is concluded to be important for three reasons. First, because many graduating students will be finding employment internationally and benefit from having been educated to be effective in differing cultural settings. Second, because rapid changes in national immigration policies have meant that many more nations are considerably more multicultural than they have been in the past and citizens need to be more conscious of diversity in their national and organisational surroundings. Third, because the pace of changes in the international political economy necessitates that people must be responsive to international economic and business forces. Thus, students who receive an internationally focused public relations education should be more culturally and socially aware and prepared to cope with the demands of rapid international economic, political and social change (Hutchings et al., 2002). Professional education and training are one of the major issues in every country in which public relations is practised. Even the US, where there are hundreds of public relations education are frequently expressed, and senior practitioners rise questions about the value of existing public relations education programmes (White, 1991, p. 184). Sommerness and Beaman (1994) found only few offerings of university courses emphasising international public relations across the United States at that time. However, most recent study has shown that some authors (Hatzitos and Lariscy, 2008) report an increased interest in scholarly research in international public relations and an effort to internationalise the public relations curricula at many U.S. universities. Despite the fact that significant gaps were found between desired outcomes and those actually found in the opinions of both practitioner and educators, certain surveys (Neff et al., 1999) have revealed strong agreement between educator s and practitioners regarding the training, experience and expertise outcomes needed for career development in public relations. Thus, while the goals of public relations education to certain extent seem clear, the means of achieving those goals, including curriculum, pedagogy, and assessment, may not be as clear. However, studies such as examining perception, asking whether or not IPR should be emphasised doesnt really contribute anymore as the concept have solidly grounded. There have been dozen papers reporting that call for a development. What more valuable for this particular research is the fact that international public relations education requires to be integrated into global PR perspective. International experiences, approaches and cases must be studied and shared between international academic societies. The literature review recorded a substantial gap in international public relations education research elsewhere than U.S. Therefore there is a need in further researching and describing development in IPRE globally. This particular study will explore perceptions and state of IPR education in two countries the United Kingdom and Russia.